Species-Specific Variation in Nutrients and Antioxidant Activity among Calocybe Mushrooms

Samay Tirkey; Srishti Verma; Tejaswi Dhiver; Kamlesh Shukla*

doi:10.52228/NBW-JAAB.2025-7-1-3

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Species-Specific Variation in Nutrients and Antioxidant Activity among Calocybe Mushrooms

Author(s): Samay Tirkey¹, Srishti Verma², Tejaswi Dhiver³, Kamlesh Shukla*⁴

Email(s): ¹samay6789@gmail.com, ²srishtisipi@gmail.com, ³tejaswi0205@gmail.com, ⁴kshukla26@yahoo.co.in

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Published In: Volume - 7, Issue - 1, Year - 2025

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Cite this article:
Samay Tirkey, Srishti Verma, Tejaswi Dhiver, Kamlesh Shukla (2025) Species-Specific Variation in Nutrients and Antioxidant Activity among Calocybe Mushrooms. NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology, 7(1):19-26.

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NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology (2025) 7(1):19-26

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Species-Specific Variation in Nutrients and Antioxidant Activity among Calocybe Mushrooms

Samay Tirkey¹, Srishti Verma²,Tejaswi Dhiver², Kamlesh Shukla²*

¹School of Studies in Life Sciences, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India.

²School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India.

*Corresponding Author Email- kshukla26@yahoo.co.in

ARTICLE INFORMATION

ABSTRACT

Article history:

Received

14 June 2025

Received in revised form

25 July 2025

Accepted

30 July 2025

Keywords:

Calocybe;

Nutritional composition; Antioxidant activity; Phenolics;

Functional foods;

Mycelial extracts

Edible mushrooms of the genus Calocybe are recognized for their nutritional value and bioactive compounds, yet comparative studies across species are scarce. This work assessed the nutritional composition and antioxidant potential of four Calocybe: C. gigantea, C. gambosa, C. indica 1, and C. indica 2, using mycelial extracts. Culture characterization confirmed basidiomycetous features, including clamp connections. Significant interspecific variation was observed in protein, carbohydrate, phenolic, flavonoid, ascorbic acid, and anthocyanin contents. C. indica 1 showed the highest protein (1.646 ± 0.22 mg/mL), phenolic (0.918 ± 0.012 mg/mL), ascorbic acid (0.209 ± 0.003 mg/mL), and anthocyanin (0.147 ± 0.006 μg/mL) levels, while C. gambosa contained the highest flavonoids (0.252 ± 0.104 mg/mL). Antioxidant activity, determined by DPPH and FRAP assays, was strongest in C. indica. These results demonstrate species-specific variation in nutritional and functional attributes and highlight C. indica 1 as a promising source of natural antioxidants for nutraceutical and functional food applications.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

DOI: 10.52228/NBW-JAAB.2025-7-1-3

Mushrooms have long been valued as both food and medicine due to their rich nutritional content and diverse repertoire of bioactive compounds. Beyond serving as a source of proteins, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, edible mushrooms are increasingly recognized for their functional roles, particularly in modulating oxidative stress and supporting human health (Verma et al. 2024; Tirkey et al. 2024; Kumar et al. 2021; Heleno et al. 2015; Nasri et al. 2014). Among the numerous mushroom genera, Calocybe has attracted attention not only for its edibility and culinary value but also for its promising pharmacological potential. The most well-known representative, Calocybe indica (milky white mushroom), has already been commercialized in parts of Asia for its high protein content, essential amino acids, and therapeutic metabolites (Verma et al. 2022a; Shashikant et al. 2022; Verma et al. 2022c; Radović et al. 2022; Petrović et al. 2022; Anuj and Ukkuru 2016). However, other Calocybe species remain underexplored, particularly with respect to their nutritional composition and antioxidant activities.

Mushroom mycelia, cultivated under controlled laboratory conditions, provide a sustainable and reproducible source of bioactive compounds, independent of seasonal variations that affect fruiting body availability. Mycelial cultures also allow for large-scale production of metabolites, thereby facilitating comparative biochemical investigations across different species (Sahu et al. 2024; Li et al. 2023; Verma et al. 2022c; Sen et al. 2021). Antioxidants derived from mushroom mycelia are of particular interest because oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders (Brazkova et al. 2022; Meshram and Chandrawanshi 2022; Souilem et al. 2017). Evaluating the antioxidant potential of Calocybe mycelia therefore offers insights into their nutraceutical relevance and possible applications in functional food formulations.

In this study, four different Calocybe species were collected, isolated, and cultured to establish pure mycelial forms. The mass-produced mycelia were subjected to extraction procedures to recover nutritional and bioactive constituents. Comparative analyses were then performed to evaluate the nutritional composition and antioxidant potential of these species. By integrating culture-based approaches with biochemical assessments, this work provides a systematic comparison of the lesser-studied Calocybe and highlights their value as potential sources of health-promoting compounds.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Collection and Identification of Mushroom Samples

Four different Calocybe species, namely C. gigantea, C. gambosa, C. indica 1, and C. indica 2, were collected from diverse habitats. Fresh basidiocarps were photographed, documented, and examined for macroscopic features such as pileus size, shape, lamellae attachment, and stipe morphology (Verma et al. 2022b). Microscopic observations were made from spore prints and squash mounts in lactophenol cotton blue. Morphological features were compared with available taxonomic keys, and preliminary identification was assigned accordingly (Li et al. 2021; Atri et al. 2017; Razaq et al. 2016).

2.2 Culture Revival and Mycelial Biomass Production

Stock cultures were revived on PDA plates and incubated at 27 ± 1 °C for 7 days. Freshly grown mycelial discs (5 mm diameter) were aseptically inoculated into 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 mL of Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB). The flasks were incubated statically at 27 ± 1 °C for 15–20 days to allow adequate biomass development. Upon reaching sufficient growth, mycelial mats were harvested by filtration through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, thoroughly washed with sterile distilled water to remove medium residues, and used for extraction (Fletcher 2019).

2.3 Preparation of Extracts

The harvested mycelium was homogenized in methanol at a ratio of 1:2 (w/v) using a sterile mortar and pestle. The homogenate was incubated at 27 °C for 24 h with intermittent shaking, followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C. The resulting supernatant was collected, while the pellet was subjected to one additional round of extraction under the same conditions to maximize yield.

For extracellular metabolites, the spent broth was extracted twice with ethyl acetate in a 1:2 (v/v) ratio. The organic layer was separated using a separating funnel and pooled. Both methanolic and ethyl acetate fractions were concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure using a rotary vacuum evaporator (EV11.BBK.002115.AX). The dried residues were reconstituted in methanol, filtered through 0.22 μm syringe filters, and stored at 4 °C until analysis (Fletcher 2019).

2.4 Quantification of Bioactive Compounds

Several classes of primary and secondary metabolites were quantified using standard colorimetric assays. Protein content was estimated by the Folin–Lowry method using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as the standard (Satpathy et al. 2020). Total carbohydrates were quantified by the phenol–sulfuric acid method with D-glucose as the standard (Nielsen 2009). Total phenolic compounds were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu assay and expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE), while total flavonoids were measured by the aluminum chloride colorimetric method and expressed as quercetin equivalents (QE) (Sevindik 2024; Tel et al. 2012). Ascorbic acid content was analyzed using the trichloroacetic acid (TCA) method with L-ascorbic acid as the standard (Nyyssönen et al. 2000), and anthocyanin content was determined spectrophotometrically using ethyl ethanol extraction (Gao 2017).

2.5 Antioxidant Activity Assays

The antioxidant potential of the Calocybe extracts was assessed using two complementary assays, namely DPPH radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Free radical scavenging activity was evaluated by the DPPH method (Petraglia et al. 2023; Khumlianlal et al. 2022), wherein the extracts were mixed with 0.5 mM DPPH solution in methanol, incubated in the dark for 30 min, and the absorbance was recorded at 517 nm, with L-ascorbic acid serving as the positive control. Results were expressed as percentage inhibition and EC₅₀ values were calculated. The reducing power was further examined using the FRAP assay (Petraglia et al. 2023; Khumlianlal et al. 2022), where the FRAP reagent, comprising acetate buffer, TPTZ, and FeCl₃, was mixed with the extracts, incubated at 37 °C for 30 min, and the absorbance was measured at 593 nm. Antioxidant capacity was expressed as µmol Fe²⁺ equivalents per millilitre of extract.

2.6 Statistical Analysis

All experiments were conducted in triplicate, and data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Calibration curves for each biochemical assay were constructed using appropriate standards, and correlation coefficients (R²) were determined. Differences among the four Calocybe species were assessed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test to determine pairwise significance. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (v.20) and Microsoft Excel (v.2019). A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

3. Result

The four mushroom isolates obtained in this study were taxonomically assigned to Calocybe gigantea, C. gambosa, C. indica 1, and C. indica 2 based on a combination of macroscopic and microscopic features, along with cultural characteristics observed during in vitro condition. Morphological identification relied on diagnostic traits such as pileus size, shape, and surface texture, stipe dimensions, gill attachment, and coloration, while microscopic examination confirmed the presence of hyphal organization consistent with basidiomycetous fungi. Cultural characteristics, including colony growth rate, margin morphology and surface texture on PDA medium, provided additional discriminatory features. Although two isolates were identified as Calocybe indica, notable differences in their morphological and cultural characteristics indicated strain-level variation, therefore, they are referred to here as C. indica 1 and C. indica 2 for clarity. Representative photographs of basidiomata and pure cultures, along with comparative descriptions of these diagnostic traits, are presented in Figure 1, 2 and Table 1, 2.

The cultural characteristics of the four Calocybe species exhibited noticeable variability in colony morphology when grown on PDA medium. C. gigantea developed large, filamentous colonies with a raised elevation, rough surface texture, and filiform margins. The colonies were predominantly white on the front with a pale-yellow coloration on the reverse, and exhibited an opaque appearance. In contrast, C. gambosa formed comparatively small, irregular filamentous colonies with an umbonate elevation and rough surface. Both the obverse and reverse surfaces were white, and the colonies were opaque in nature. C. indica 1 produced medium-sized filamentous colonies with an umbonate elevation and filiform margins; the colonies were white on the surface with yellow pigmentation on the reverse, and appeared translucent rather than opaque. C. indica 2 displayed small filamentous colonies with an umbonate elevation, rough surface, and filiform margins. The colony coloration was white on the front with a pale-white reverse, and the texture was translucent. These observations demonstrate that although the four isolates share several common traits, such as filamentous growth form, rough surface texture, and filiform margins, they also display distinct differences in colony size, pigmentation, opacity, and elevation, which were useful for species-level discrimination.

Figure 1: Monographs of different Calocybe species: A) Calocybe gigantea, B) Calocybe gambosa, C) Calocybe indica 1, D) Calocybe indica 2.

Figure 2: Isolated cultures of different Calocybe species: A) Calocybe gigantea, B) Calocybe gambosa, C) Calocybe indica 1, D) Calocybe indica 2.

Nutritional composition of Calocybe species

The nutritional and phytochemical profiles of the four Calocybe species revealed distinct interspecific variations (Table 2). Protein content ranged from 0.491 ± 0.06 to 1.646 ± 0.22 mg/mL, with C. indica 1 recording the highest concentration, followed by C. gambosa and C. gigantea, while C. indica 2 exhibited the lowest levels. Carbohydrate content was comparatively higher across all species, varying between 1.227 ± 0.11 and 1.865 ± 0.06 mg/mL. C. gigantea contained the highest carbohydrate concentration, closely followed by C. gambosa, whereas C. indica 2 recorded the lowest values.

Total phenolic content ranged from 0.319 ± 0.016 to 0.918 ± 0.012 mg/mL, with C. indica 1 showing the maximum phenolic accumulation. This trend was consistent with antioxidant activity data, suggesting a strong contribution of phenolics to radical scavenging potential. In contrast, C. indica 2 exhibited the least phenolic content. Flavonoid content was relatively low, varying between 0.135 ± 0.029 and 0.252 ± 0.104 mg/mL. The highest concentration was detected in C. gambosa, followed by C. indica 1, while C. indica 2 again recorded the lowest levels.

Among the secondary metabolites, anthocyanin levels were found in the range of 0.082 ± 0.002 to 0.147 ± 0.006 μg/mL. C. indica 1 was the richest source of anthocyanins, nearly two-fold higher than C. gigantea. Similarly, ascorbic acid concentrations varied from 0.126 ± 0.007 to 0.209 ± 0.003 mg/mL, with C. indica 1 again demonstrating the highest content. The relatively elevated ascorbic acid, phenolics, and anthocyanins in C. indica 1 correlate with its superior antioxidant performance.

Antioxidant potential

The antioxidant potential of the Calocybe extracts was assessed using both DPPH radical scavenging activity and FRAP assays (Table 2). In the DPPH assay, EC₅₀ values ranged from 0.19 ± 0.020 mg/ml to 0.270 ± 0.027 mg/ml, indicating species-specific variations in free radical scavenging capacity. Among the four species, C. indica 1 exhibited the strongest activity with the lowest EC₅₀ value (0.19 ± 0.020 mg/ml), followed by C. gigantea (0.206 ± 0.005 mg/ml) and C. gambosa (0.22 ± 0.013 mg/ml,). The weakest activity was observed in C. indica 2 (0.270 ± 0.027 mg/ml), suggesting comparatively lower radical scavenging potential.

Similarly, in the FRAP assay, the ferric reducing antioxidant power differed significantly among the species, with values ranging from 0.542 ± 0.02 to 0.887 ± 0.03 µmol Fe²⁺ equivalents/mL. The highest reducing activity was observed in C. indica 1 (0.887 ± 0.03 µmol Fe²⁺ eq./mL), followed by C. gigantea (0.715 ± 0.03 µmol Fe²⁺ eq./mL) and C. gambosa (0.681 ± 0.01 µmol Fe²⁺ eq./mL). In contrast, C. indica 2 exhibited the lowest activity (0.542 ± 0.02 µmol Fe²⁺ eq./mL).

Table 1: Culture characteristics of different Calocybe species

Culture Characteristics	*Calocybe* species
Culture Characteristics	Calocybe gigantea	Calocybe gambosa	Calocybe indica 1	Calocybe indica 2
Size	Large	Small	Medium	Small
Shape/ Form	Filamentous	Irregular Filamentous	Filamentous	Filamentous
Front/ Back colour	White/ Pale yellow	White/ White	White/ Yellow	White/ Pale white
Elevation	Raised	Umbonate	Umbonate	Umbonate
Margin	Filiform	Filiform	Filiform	Filiform
Surface	Rough	Rough	Rough	Rough
Opacity	Opaque	Opaque	Translucent	Translucent

Table 2: Comparative representation of important biochemical composition and antioxidant activity of different edible Calocybe mushrooms

Analysis	*Calocybe* species
Analysis	Calocybe gigantea	Calocybe gambosa	Calocybe indica 1	Calocybe indica 2
Protein (mg/mL)	1.178 ±0.16	1.368 ±0.10	1.646 ±0.22	0.491 ±0.06
Carbohydrate (mg/mL)	1.865±0.06	1.817±0.07	1.297±0.23	1.227±0.11
Total Phenol (mg/mL)	0.561±0.067	0.648±0.013	0.918±0.012	0.319±0.016
Total Flavanoid (mg/mL)	0.173±0.019	0.252±0.104	0.200±0.018	0.135±0.029
Anthocyanin (µg/mL)	0.082±0.002	0.099±0.004	0.147±0.006	0.084±0.007
Ascorbic acid (mg/mL)	0.126±0.007	0.127±0.003	0.209±0.003	0.132±0.004
EC⁵⁰forDPPH (mg/mL)	0.206±0.005	0.22±0.013	0.19±0.020	0.270±0.027
EC⁵⁰forFRAP (µmol Fe²⁺/ml extract)	0.715± 0.03	0.681± 0.01	0.887± 0.03	0.542 ± 0.02

Discussion

The present study provides a comparative nutritional and antioxidant profiling of four Calocybe species: C. gigantea, C. gambosa, C. indica 1, and C. indica 2. Significant interspecific variation was observed in protein, carbohydrate, phenolic, flavonoid, and ascorbic acid levels, which contributed to differences in antioxidant potential. Several previous studies have highlighted intraspecific variability in edible mushrooms, wherein isolates belonging to the same species exhibit considerable morphological, cultural, and biochemical divergence. For instance, strain-level variation in Calocybe indica has been reported with respect to basidiomata size, yield potential, growth rate on different substrates, and biochemical composition (Krishnamoorthy and Priyadarshini 2016; Prakasam et al. 2011). Such variation is not uncommon among cultivated basidiomycetes, as demonstrated in Pleurotus spp. (Suganya et al. 2022) and Volvariella volvacea (Miles and Chang 2004), where different strains within a species showed distinct cultural and nutritional profiles. In the present study, although both isolates were morphologically consistent with Calocybe indica, the observable differences in macroscopic and cultural features strongly suggest strain-level diversity. To avoid ambiguity and to allow comparative evaluation of their biochemical and antioxidant profiles, the two isolates are therefore designated as C. indica 1 and C. indica 2. Although C. indica is widely recognized as the cultivated species in India, older literature often refers to a similar species, C. gigantea, distinguished primarily by larger fruiting body size and some morphological traits. In the present study, we treat C. gigantea as a distinct entity, given its consistently larger basidiocarps and significantly different nutritional profile compared to typical C. indica. Where relevant, we note that some authors consider C. gigantea synonymous with C. indica, but for clarity and to highlight observed morphological and nutritional differences, we retain the traditional designation of C. gigantea.

The higher protein content in C. indica 1 aligns with previous reports highlighting its nutritional superiority among tropical edible mushrooms (Alam et al. 2008; Chelladurai 2021). Conversely, C. gigantea exhibited greater carbohydrate accumulation, corroborating earlier findings that this species often serves as a rich carbohydrate source (Vishwakarma et al. 2016).

The elevated TPC in C. indica 1 is consistent with its strong antioxidant activity in both DPPH and FRAP assays. Phenolic compounds are well established as key contributors to radical scavenging capacity (Selvi et al. 2011; Subbiah and Balan 2015). Notably, C. gambosa recorded the highest flavonoid content, suggesting species-specific differences in secondary metabolite allocation.

Ascorbic acid and anthocyanins were most abundant in C. indica 1, further reinforcing its nutraceutical value. Compared to earlier studies where Calocybe species exhibited lower ascorbic acid levels (Vishwakarma et al. 2016), the present findings suggest possible environmental or strain-specific influences.

Antioxidant assays confirmed the dominance of C. indica 1 in free radical scavenging and ferric reducing capacity. The DPPH EC_₅₀ values observed (0.19–0.27 mg/mL) are substantially lower than those reported for other mushrooms in literature (Mirunalini et al. 2012; Subbiah and Balan 2015), indicating comparatively stronger antioxidant activity in the studied strains.

The results highlight C. indica 1 as a nutritionally and functionally superior species, with promising potential for functional food and pharmaceutical applications. The interspecific variations documented here provide a basis for future strain selection and bioactive compound isolation studies. Although morphological and cultural characters provided concordant identifications, such characteristics alone may not fully resolve closely related or cryptic Calocybe species. Therefore, species names presented here should be regarded as provisional pending molecular confirmation (ITS rDNA). Future studies should perform sequence-based identification to corroborate the morphological assignments

Conclusion

This study presents the first comparative evaluation of nutritional and antioxidant attributes in cultured mycelia of four Calocybe species. Distinct interspecific variation was evident, with C. indica 1 showing notably higher protein, phenolic, and ascorbic acid content, along with superior antioxidant potential in both DPPH and FRAP assays. These findings highlight the promise of Calocybe mycelia, particularly C. indica 1, as a sustainable source of bioactive compounds for functional food and nutraceutical applications. Future research should integrate metabolomic profiling and in vivo validation to further substantiate the health-promoting potential of cultured Calocybe mycelia.

Acknowledgments

All the authors are thankful to Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India, for providing laboratory facilities, and also thankful to the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), the Government of India, for instrumentation facilities. And special, thanks to the Department of Forest, Chhattisgarh, for giving support and providing forest guards for this work.

Conflict of interest Author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding information not applicable.

Ethical approval not applicable.

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