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Author(s): Khemraj Sahu*1, Pritika Pradhan2, Nagendra Kumar Chandrawanshi3

Email(s): 1khemrajsahu1197@gmail.com, 2pritikapradhan03@gmail.com, 3chandrawanshi11@gmail.com

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    1School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
    2School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
    3School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
    *Corresponding author Email- khemrajsahu1197@gmail.com

Published In:   Volume - 4,      Issue - 2,     Year - 2022


Cite this article:
Khemraj Sahu, Pritika Pradhan and Nagendra Kumar Chandrawanshi (2022) Revaluation of Mushroom Edibility Based on Differences in Morphological Characteristic. NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology,4(2):15-17.

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 NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology (2022) 4(2):15-17            

REVIEW ARTICLE

Revaluation of Mushroom Edibility Based on Differences in Morphological Characteristic

Khemraj Sahu*, Pritika Pradhan and Nagendra Kumar Chandrawanshi

 

School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

khemrajsahu1197@gmail.com; pritikapradhan03@gmail.com; chandrawanshi11@gmail.com

*Corresponding author Email- khemrajsahu1197@gmail.com



Introduction

Mushroom is a macrofungi, belonging to Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. It contains high nutritional content due to its high level of carbohydrates, protein, minerals, vitamins, low cholesterol content, crude fiber, and trace element. Among the presence of bioactive components mushrooms are reported for antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and antidiabetic that’s the reason recent years, mushrooms have become popular worldwide due to their nutritional and therapeutic benefits (Govorushko et al., 2019; Alam et al., 2021; Ahmed et al., 2023). Good flavor, odor, and the absence of any toxic substances on people are all potential characteristics of edible mushrooms. Researchers continue much work on mushroom properties such as taxonomy, edibility, and medicinal properties. According to the edibility, mushrooms are majorly categorized into 2 types edible and poisonous mushrooms. Some poisonous mushroom looks similar to edible mushroom and people are confused and consume them after consumption show adverse effects on the body, such as abdominal pain, nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, central nervous system disturbances, pupil contraction vision problems, and some poisonous mushrooms affect major organs such as liver and kidney (Yamada et al., 2012; Barman et al., 2017; Wennig, et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2022). Most mushroom poisoning cases are accidental because there is no simple way to tell which are edible and poisonous mushrooms. But some characterization keys to differentiate them, such as morphology and substrate because mushrooms utilize different substrates for growth; understanding the substrate might help to identify a particular mushroom. Identification of mushroom spores is also important, and able to be observed in a mass because they are microscopic (Peterson and Talcott, 2012; Bijeesh et al., 2017). In the forest, both types of mushrooms are found edible and poisonous, some edible species look similar to poisonous mushrooms, and that’s the region mushroom foragers confused them and pick poisonous mushrooms, mistakenly consume them, after consumption shows adverse side effects. So, the identification and differentiation keys between them and their knowledge is essential (Ruan et al., 2018). Macro and micromorphological attributes were described in the below table, such as cap colour, cap size, gills arrangement, and attachment, stem size, colour, texture, spore colour, and shape, and toxic substances present in poisonous mushrooms, and how people confused them.


 

DOI: 10.52228/NBW-JAAB.2022-4-2-3

Table- 01. Morphological characteristics of poisonous mushrooms with names of similar edible species.

Poisonous species

Amanita muscaria

Agaricus xanthoderma

Amanita phalloides

Chlorophyllum molybdites

Common name

Fly agaric

Yellow-staining mushroom

Deathcap

False parasol

Cap colour

Orange or red-yellow

Whitish

Greenish yellow

White colour and brown scales

Cap size (in diameter) and texture

9 -14 cm, white texture present

10 – 13 cm

6–12.5 cm

8-30 cm, brown texture present

Gills colour

Whitish

Pale-pink to chocolate colour

White

Green

Spore

White

Brown

White

Greenish

Stem

6–21 cm tall

10-12 cm tall

6–12.5 cm tall

5-30 cm tall

Ring in stem

Present

Present

Present

Present

Volva

White or yellow

Absent

White

Absent

Toxic substances and their structure

Ibotenic acid and muscimol

Molybdophylysin toxic protein.

Amatoxins

Molybdophylysin toxic protein.

Morphological similar edible species

Amanita caesarea

Agaricus campestris

Agaricus campestris

Chlorophyllum rhacodes

References

Voynova et al., 2020.

Callac et al., 2005; Lakkireddy et al., 2020.

Garcia et al., 2015.

Bijeesh et al., 2017.

The chemical structure draws by chem draw,

Image sources- National Centers for Biotechnology Information PubChem https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Amatoxin

Table 02. Morphological characteristics keys of edible mushroom species

Edible species

Amanita caesarea

Agaricus campestris

Amanita rubescens

Chlorophyllum rhacodes

Common name

Caesars mushroom

Field mushroom

Blusher

Shaggy parasol

Cap colour

Deep reddish orange

White

Reddish-brown

White cap with thick brown scales

Cap size (in diameter) and texture

15-20 cm 

5–10 cm

5-15 cm, white texture present

Reddish-brown texture

Gills color

Yellow

Pinkish when young

White

White to cream

Spore

White

Brown

White

White

Stem

8–15 cm

4-6 cm

5-15 cm pinkish on the bottom side

light brown

Ring in stem

Present

Present

Present

Present

Volva

Present

Absent

Disappear after maturity

Not volva but bulbous base present

Toxic substances

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

References

Groves, 1981

Zhao et al., 2020

Hernandez-Rico et al., 2019; Stefanikova et al., 2021

Molina, 1993; Schwab, 2012

 


Conclusion

In this review, differentiate the poisonous and similar edible specie through their morphology. Since this is merely a morphological difference, based on their cap, gills, stem, volva, spore structure, shape, size, texture, and color. Also, the mushroom picture is a more suitable and good way for differentiating between the closely morphologically similar edible and poisonous mushroom species.

Conflict of interest

The authors had no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgment

The authors are also thankful to the Head, School of Studies in Biotechnology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur for providing facilities and to conduct the study. 

References

Ahmed, A. F., Mahmoud, G. A. E., Hefzy, M., Liu, Z., and Ma, C. (2023). Overview on the edible mushrooms in Egypt. Journal of Future Foods3(1), 8-15.

Alam, M. Z., Alhebsi, M. S., Ghnimi, S., and Kamal-Eldin, A. (2021). Inability of total antioxidant activity assays to accurately assess the phenolic compounds of date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.). NFS Journal22, 32-40.

Barman, B., Lynrah, K. G., and Tiewsoh, I. (2017). Mushroom poisoning. Medicine Update-Section13, 538-541.

Bijeesh, C., Vrinda, K. B., & Pradeep, C. K. (2017). Mushroom poisoning by Chlorophyllum molybdites in Kerala. Journal of Mycopathological Research54(4), 477-483.

Callac, P., and Guinberteau, J. (2005). Morphological and molecular characterization of two novel species of Agaricus section XanthodermateiMycologia97(2), 416-424.

Clitocybe rivulose- https://www.wildfooduk.com/mushroom-guide/clitocybe-rivulosa-2/ retrived date 05-05-2023 12:40

Garcia, J., Costa, V. M., Carvalho, A., Baptista, P., de Pinho, P. G., de Lourdes Bastos, M., and Carvalho, F. (2015). Amanita phalloides poisoning: Mechanisms of toxicity and treatment. Food and chemical toxicology86, 41-55.

Govorushko, S., Rezaee, R., Dumanov, J., and Tsatsakis, A. (2019). Poisoning associated with the use of mushrooms: A review of the global pattern and main characteristics. Food and Chemical Toxicology128, 267-279.

Groves, J. W. (1981). Edible and poisonous mushrooms of Canada. Agricultural Canada. Catalogue No. A43-1 1 12/1979, ISBN 0-660-10136-X.

Hernandez-Rico, G. N., Octavio-Aguilar, P., Garibay-Orijel, R., and Romero-Bautista, L. (2019). Genotoxic Profile and Morphological Variation of the Amanita rubescens Complex. Ethnobiology Letters10(1), 76-85.

Lakkireddy, K., Khonsuntia, W., and Kües, U. (2020). Mycoparasite Hypomyces odoratus infests Agaricus xanthodermus fruiting bodies in nature. AMB Express10(1), 1-22.

Lee, B. S., Ryoo, R., Park, J. S., Choi, S. U., Jeong, S. Y., Ko, Y. J., and Kim, K. H. (2022). Meyeroguilline E, a New Isoindolinone Alkaloid from the Poisonous Mushroom Chlorophyllum molybdites, and Identification of Compounds with Multidrug Resistance (MDR) Reversal Activities. ACS omega.

Molina, R. (1993). Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest: a preface to managing commercial harvest (Vol. 309). US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Peterson, M. E., and Talcott, P. A. (2012). Small animal toxicology. Elsevier Health Sciences. (Third Edition) Pages 659-676, ISBN 9781455707171, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-0717-1.00062-4.

Ruan-Soto, F. (2018). Sociodemographic differences in the cultural significance of edible and toxic mushrooms among Tsotsil towns in the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine14, 1-19.

Schwab, A. (2012). Mushrooming with Confidence: A Guide to Collecting Edible and Tasty Mushrooms. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN: 978-1-62087-195-9.

Stefanikova, J., Martisova, P., Snirc, M., Kunca, V., and Arvay, J. (2021). The effect of Amanita rubescens Pers developmental stages on aroma profile. Journal of Fungi7(8), 611.

Voynova, M., Shkondrov, A., Kondeva-Burdina, M., and Krasteva, I. (2020). Toxicological and pharmacological profile of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. a new rising opportunity for biomedicine. Pharmacia67(4), 317-323

Wennig, R., Eyer, F., Schaper, A., Zilker, T., and Andresen-Streichert, H. (2020). Mushroom poisoning. Deutsches Ärzteblatt international117(42), 701.

Yamada, M., Tokumitsu, N., Saikawa, Y., Nakata, M., Asano, J., Miyairi, K., Okuno, T., Konno, K., and Hashimoto, K. (2012). Molybdophyllysin, a toxic metallo endopeptidase from the tropical toadstool, Chlorophyllum molybditesBioorganic and medicinal chemistry20(22), 6583-6588.

Zhao, R. (2020). Species of Agaricus section Agaricus from China. Phytotaxa452(1), 001-018.

 

 

 



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