Article in HTML

Author(s): B.M. Lall*1

Email(s): 1lallpinky@yahoo.co.in

Address:

    1Department of Botany, Govt. D. B. Girls P.G. (Auto.) College, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
    *Corresponding Author Email- lallpinky@yahoo.co.in

Published In:   Volume - 2,      Issue - 1,     Year - 2020


Cite this article:
B.M. Lall (2020) Leaf Surface Mycoflora around the Hospital Area with Special Reference to Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar Memorial Hospital, Raipur, Chhattisgarh. NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology, 2(1):18-24.

  View PDF

Please allow Pop-Up for this website to view PDF file.



 NewBioWorld A Journal of Alumni Association of Biotechnology (2020) 2(1):18-24            

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Leaf Surface Mycoflora around the Hospital Area with Special Reference to Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar Memorial Hospital, Raipur, Chhattisgarh

B.M. Lall

Department of Botany, Govt. D. B. Girls P.G. (Auto.) College, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

lallpinky@yahoo.co.in

Corresponding Author Email- lallpinky@yahoo.co.in

ARTICLE INFORMATION

 

ABSTRACT

Article history:

Received

23 October 2019

Received in revised form

28 December 2019

Accepted

10 January 2020

Keywords:

Leaf surface;

Mycoflora;

Hospital;

Aerosol

 

Leaf surface provide an important substrate for the growth of a wide variety of fungal organisms. Saprophytic fungi obtain water and nutrients from these surface and leaf surface provide a physical environment suitable for growth and reproduction. For phytopathogenic fungi, the leaf surface represents a temporary, supportive environment, but a surface must be breached before a successful pathogenic interaction can become established. Thus, the physical and chemical characteristics of the leaf surface play an important role in governing the success or failure of fungal growth on, and subsequently in, the leaf. The present paper deals with leaf surface mycoflora around the hospital area with special reference to Dr.Bhim Rao Ambedkar Memorial Hospital, Raipur Chhattisgarh was done by using leaf suspension on PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) medium for the period of one year from July 2006 to June 2007. During the present study, total 46 fungal species (173 colonies) belonging to 22 genera were recorded. Class wise percentage contribution were recorded and showed that, Anamorphic fungi contributed maximum (96.53%) followed by Zygomycotina (2.87%) and Ascomycotina (0.58%). Season wise total percentage contribution of leaf surface mycoflora were also recorded and showed that maximum contribution were observed in winter season (48.55 %), moderate (30.64%) in rainy season and minimum (20.81%) in summer season.  Similarly, maximum contribution were found in the month of November (24.86%) and minimum contribution were observed during the month of June (3.47%). It is also shows that fungal species i.e. Cladosporium sphaerospermum (12.13%), C. Cladosporioides (8.09%), Alternaria alternata (7.51%), Aspergillus niger and Curvularia lunata (5.75%), Phoma fimeti (4.62%) and Aspergillus flavus (4.04%) were most contributed leaf surface mycoflora. It is also observed that, Cladosporium sphaerospermum (23.80%) and C. Cladosporioides (10.71%) were most dominated in winter season, while Alternaria alternata and Aspergillus niger (13.20%) were dominated in rainy season. The presence of these fungi supports the idea that the air spora constitutes the source of many fungi that can potentially colonize the leaf surface.

 


Introduction

Aerobiology deals in large parts with bio particles present in air. Some of fungal flora may infect the plants of the standing crop in the field and as a result spreading of diseases occurs. Mycoflora of leaf surface (i.e. Phylloplane) varies in size and diversity depending on the influence of numerous biotic and abiotic factors which affect their growth and survival (Bakkar et al., 2002). Leaf surface is the most suitable platform for airborne microorganisms. On availability of suitable microhabitat, these fungal spores get settled down on this platform and try to colonies on it. Finally a triangular relationship is developed among leaf surface, fungal spores and the environment (Tilak et al., 1981).

DOI: 10.52228/NBW-JAAB.2020-2-1-4

The phylloplane, the surface of plant leaves, is a complex terrestrial habitat that is characterized by a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, filamentous fungi and yeast. Pathogens, saprobes and epiphytes occur in this habitat and numerous studies have described the phylloplane populations from various plant species (Breeze and Dix, 1981; Mishra and Dickinson, 1981; de Jager et al., 2001; Andrews et al., 2002; Ina´cio et al., 2002; Osono et al., 2004). The non-pathogenic fungi that inhabit the phyllosphere depend on nutrients exuded from the leaf or those deposited from the atmosphere (Belanger and Avis, 2002; Ina´cio et al., 2002). In addition to nutrient levels, growth and abundance of phylloplane fungi are also influenced by environmental conditions such as water availability, UV radiation, and temperature (Breeze and Dix, 1981; Newsham et al., 1997; Sundin, 2002; Zak, 2002).

The air spora constitutes both the source of fungi that colonize the leaf surface and the sink of spores released from the leaf surface by various dispersal mechanisms (Pedgley, 1991; Kinkel, 1997; Aylor, 2002). Airborne spores impact on leaf surfaces and may adhere due to structural or chemical features of the epidermis and the spore (Andrews and Buck, 2002). Spore release from many fungi inhabiting the phylloplane is passive through the action of wind or rain splash; however, other spores are actively propelled into the atmosphere by various mechanisms (Kinkel, 1997; Aylor, 2002; Levetin, 2002).

Leaf surface provide an important substrate for the growth of a wide variety of fungal organisms. Saprophytic fungi obtain water and nutrients from these surface and leaf surface provide a physical environment suitable for growth and reproduction. For phytopathogenic fungi, the leaf surface represents a temporary, supportive environment, but a surface must be breached before a successful pathogenic interaction can become established. Thus, the physical and chemical characteristics of the leaf surface play an important role in governing the success or failure of fungal growth on, and subsequently in, the leaf. Numerous reviews have been written about the growth of fungi in association with plant surfaces (e.g., Preece, 1976; Aist, 1981; Wynn, 1981; Staples and Macko, 1984; Hoch and Staples, 1987, 1991). 

The present study was undertaken to study leaf surface mycoflora around the hospital area with special reference to Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar Memorial Hospital, Raipur, Chhattisgarh to find that some leaf surface fungi are major contributors to the air spora.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Raipur District is the capital of Chhattisgarh; it is situated in the fertile plains of Chhattisgarh region.  This District is situated between 22º - 33’ North Latitude and 82º - 38’ East Longitude about 298.60 meters above the sea level. The District is surrounded by District Bilaspur in North, District Baster and part of Orissa State in South, District Raigarh and part of Orissa State in East and District Durg in West. The climate of Raipur city is characterized by the rainy season (July-October), winter season (November-February) and summer season (March-June). Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar Memorial Hospital, Raipur is the largest government health care facility in Chhattisgarh. This is located in the heart of the city and within one kilometer from railway station and bus stand. Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar Hospital is commonly known as MECAHARA (Medical College Hospital Raipur).

Sample Collection

For the isolation of leaf surface mycoflora, leaves were collected from different plants which are presented in the surrounding areas of the hospital at fortnightly intervals at all the time (July, 2006 to June, 2007). Different leaves of plants (available at outside of the hospital area) are collected with the help of sterilized forceps in sterilized polythene bags.

 

Isolation of fungi

After that leaves are brought into the laboratory for the isolation of leaf surface mycoflora. In the laboratory, the collected leaves are placed in 150 ml of conical flask containing 75 ml of sterilized distilled water. The flasks are hand shaken for 30 minutes to make a homogenous suspension of microorganisms attached to the leaf surface. This suspension was used for the isolation of leaf surface mycoflora. 0.1 ml of this suspension is poured into the each petriplates (triplicate PDA plates) with the help of micropipette. After that petriplates are incubated at 26 ± 1º C for incubation period. (Tiwari, 1977).

Media Preparation Composition of Potato Dextrose Agar Medium:

 Potato (peeled) - 250gm

Dextrose - 20 gm

Agar - 15 gm

 Distilled water - 1000 ml

Preparation of Potato Dextrose Agar Medium:

The potato tubers were peeled and weighed for about 250g. The tubers were chopped into small pieces with the help of sterile knife. The chopped potatoes were transferred into a conical flask containing about 1000ml of distilled water. The content was boiled for 20 min. The supernatant were decanted and filtered by muslin cloth and the filtrate was collected. Dextrose (20g) and agar (15g) were transferred into the extract and shaked to dissolve the ingredients.

The medium was made up to 1 litre by addition of distilled water. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.6. Finally, the medium was cotton plugged and autoclaved at 121ºC for 15 minutes.

Lacto Phenol Cotton Blue Mounting:

A portion of the mycelium of the representative colonies was picked up with the help of a pair of needles and semi-permanent slides were prepared using lactophenol cotton blue (20g – phenol (crystal); 20g lactic acid; 40g glycerin; 20 ml water; cotton blue a few drops). The slide was gently heated in a sprit lamp so as to release the air bubbles, if any present inside the cover glass. The excess stain was removed using tissue paper and the cover glass was sealed using white nail polish.

Identification of fungi:

As the plating method yield facultative phylloplane fungi were identified referring the standard manuals. The manual of soil fungi (Gillman, 1857) and Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes and More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes (Ellis, 1976). Cultures were incubated at room temperature for 5–7 days; colonies were counted and then examined microscopically. Standard keys were used for colony identification (Ellis, 1971, 1976; Barnett and Hunter, 1998)

Ecological studies

For ecological studies, at the end of the incubation period, percentage contribution of the fungal flora is calculated (Prasad and Bilgrami, 1969; Jadhav and Tiwari, 1994) with the help of the following formula:-

Results and Discussion

During the present investigation, total 46 fungal species (173 fungal colonies)   belonging to 22 genera were observed (Fig-1). 02 fungal species i.e. Mucor sp. and Cyncephalastrum recemosum (05 fungal colonies) were captured from Zygomycotina and only single species i.e. Lewia infectoria (01 fungal colony) was investigated from Ascomycotina. 43 fungal species (167 fungal colonies) were isolated from Anamorphic fungi.

Climatic factor such as temperature, relative humidity and rainfall have been known to play a major role in the concentration of the fungal population of a particular area. During the present investigation, maximum 33 fungal species (84 fungal colonies) are observed in the winter season due to favorable temperature and relative humidity (28.9 ºC and 82.1% respectively), which are favorable for the fungal growth. Moderate 27 fungal species (53 fungal colonies) are observed in rainy season due to moderate temperature (30.7 ºC) and relative humidity (91.1%) and due to the washing off, of the fungal spores by the rains clearing the atmosphere. While, minimum 24 fungal species (36 fungal colonies) were recorded during summer season due to unfavorable temperature (37.8 ºC) and relative humidity (64.2%). Very high temperature during summer season is unfavorable for the sporulation of fungal spores. These studies are in agreement with the findings of several other workers in Raipur (Tiwari and Sahu; 1988; Tiwari and Sahu, 1989; Sahu1996; Sahu 1998; Sharma, 2001; Saluja, 2006; Singh, 2006 & Tiwari and Khare, 2012). Tilak (1982) also find the lower incidence of mycoflora during summer may be attributed to unfavorable climatic condition. Maximum number of fungal spores during winter season has been confirmed by a number of aerobiologist (Cunningham, 1873; Rajan et. al., 1952; Hirst, 1953; Sreelamulu and Ramalingam, 1966; Nagarjan et. al., 1976; Tiwari 1977; Tiwari and sahu, 1989 and Nayak et. al., 1998). Similarly Maximum incidence of fungal species and colonies were recorded in November, July and December (24.86%, 11.56% and 9.83% respectively). While minimum number was recorded in the month of June (3.47%) (Fig- 2 & 3).  

In our findings Zygomycotina was present in rainy and winter season and absent in summer season. Ascomycotina was present only in winter season and absent in Rainy and summer season. Maximum number of fungal species and fungal colonies were encountered in the months of October, November and December due to the favorable environmental condition, while minimum in the month of September and mostly in summer season due to high temperature and minimum relative humidity.

  

Cladosporium sphaerospermum (12.13%) most contributed leaf surface mycoflora followed by Cladosporium cladosporioides (8.09%), Alternaria alternata (7.51%), Aspergillus niger, Curvularia lunata (5.75%), Phoma fimeti (4.62%) and Aspergillus flavus (4.04%). In rainy season Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger (13.20%) and Phoma fimeti (9.43%) were most dominated. In winter season Cladosporium sphaerospermum (23.80%) contributed maximum followed by Cladosporium cladosporioides (10.71%) and Alternaria alternata (7.51%). Similarly in summer season Aspergillus flavus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Curvularia lunata and Pestalotiopsis glandicola (8.33%) most contributed fungal species on leaf surface of the plants. Leaf surface fungi identified also parallel those found in other studies          (Breeze and Dix, 1981; Mishra and Dickinson, 1981; Tiwari and Sahu, 1989; Sahu,1992, 1996; McCormack et al., 1994; Andrews et al., 2002; Ina´cio et al., 2002; Saluja, 2005; Singh, 2006; Tiwari and Khare, 2012;). The presence of these fungi supports the idea that the air spora constitutes the source of many fungi that can potentially colonize the leaf surface (Pedgley, 1991; Kinkel, 1997; Aylor 2002). In our findings Alternaria alternata (25%) prominent in July, Aspergillus niger (44.66%) in August, Cladosporium sphaerospermum (46.51%) in November, Alternaria citri (11.76%) in December, Cladosporium clamydospora,  Aspergillus flavus, and A. chevalieri var. intermedius (20%) in May and  Curvularia clavata ( 33.33%)   were dominated in the month of June.  The dominance of Alternaria, Aspergillus  and Cladosporium is in agreement with observation of several scientists (Agrawal et. al.,1969; Collins et. al., 1973; Rati and Ramalingam 1976, Janaki Bai and Subba Reddi,1981; Shastri, 1981;  Sahney and Purwar, 2002; Saluja, 2005; Singh, 2006; Abdel-Hameed et. al., 2007; Sabariego et. al. 2007 and Tiwari and Khare, 2012).

Class wise percentage contribution showed that Anamorphic fungi contributed maximum (96.53%) followed by Zygomycotina (2.89%) and Ascomycotina (0.58%) (Fig-4). The percentage contribution of fungal colonies of Anamorphic fungi are maximum throughout the study periods. Maximum percentage contribution of Anamorphic fungi are also reported by several workers (Verma and Khare, 1987; Manoharachary et. al., 1988; Satheesh and Rao, 1994; Sharma, 2001; Saluja, 2005; Singh, 2006 and Zoppas et al. 2006).   Winter season contributed maximum number of fungal flora (48.55%) followed by rainy season (30.64%) and summer season (20.81%) (fig-5). Similarly, maximum numbers of fungal colonies were encountered in the month of November and July (24.86% & 11.56%) respectively. while minimum in the month of June (3.47%) (Fig- 6).

Conclusion

The phylloplane, the surface of plant leaves is a complex terrestrial habitat that is characterized by a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, filamentous fungi and yeast. Phylloplane fungi are the mycota growing or the surface of leaves. There are two groups of phylloplane fungi: residents and casuals. Residents can multiply on the surface of healthy leaves without noticeably affecting the host. Whereas, casuals land on the leaf surface but cannot grow.

 Microorganism are introduced into air from various sources, the chief source of these microorganism are soil and vegetation of particular area. Microorganism which are found on the surface of plants either as pathogens or as saprophytes also get suspended in air. Man also contributes to this to a great extent by disturbing the atmosphere.  Leaf surface mycoflora have been studied in this connection and surface of the leaves have been found to be responsible for the air microflora, the most common sources of air microflora are soil, leaf and water of corresponding areas ( Lall, 2008).  Microorganisms of the particular area are the important source of the airspora of that particular area. Different types of microorganisms present in the soil and different type of microorganisms present in the plants or its parts and different type of the microorganisms, which are present on the dead organic matter, are the important source of the airspora of the particular area. Fungal spores can be serious problem for human health. Some fungal spores play a significant role in plant pathology and human respiratory allergy. The allergenic nature of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Penicillium has already been established (Gupta, et al., 1960; Al-Doory et al., 1982; Singh et al., 1994; Kurkela, 1997; Corden and Millington, 2001). Monitoring of leaf surface fungi can be helpful in prevention of plant diseases and fungal allergic diseases.

 

Sustainable agriculture always emphasizes on preserving the soil quality and enhancing the crop yield. It also focuses on the well-functioning of soil ecosystem. However, plants have to face multiple environmental challenges (variety of stresses) everyday which affects its overall physiology, growth and development thereby reducing the yield and productivity. The production of reactive oxygen species, disturbing the plant nutrient homeostasis, affecting photosynthetic processes and other metabolic cycles are the common outcomes of any stress. Heavy metal contamination is becoming one of the important stressor against which the plant should initiate the defensive mechanism. And the application of biostimulants is one such support to enhance the defensive approach to regulate and control the overall processes of growth and development. Biostimulants fight various biotic and abiotic stresses through a combination of an array of mechanisms. Thus, the purpose of this review is to briefly explain the biostimulant, its types and the role of few important biostimulant to ameliorate the toxic effect of heavy metals. This will provide a basis to understand the types of biostimulants and open the area to study their detail mechanism in response to heavy metal toxicity. The overall impact of this review will be to set a scientific frame to identify how the plant biostimulants treatments (substances and/or microorganisms) have the potential to enhance plant resilience to nutrient limitation typical of organic farming, and consequently reducing the gap between organic and conventional yields.

References

Al-Doory, Y, Domson, J. F. and Best, J.: 1982.  Further studies on the airborne fungi and pollens of Washington, W.C. metropolitan area. Ann. Allergy. 49: 265-269.

Andrews J.H. and Buck J.W.: 2002, Adhesion of yeasts to leaf surfaces, in S.E. Lindow, E.I Hecht-Poinar and V.J. Elliott (eds), Phyllosphere Microbiology. APS ress: St. Paul, pp. 53–68.

Andrews J.H., Spear R.N. and Nordheim E.V.: 2002, Population biology of Aureobasidium pullulans on apple leaf surfaces, Can. J. Microbiol. 48: pp 500–513.

Arora, A. and Jain, V. K.: 2003. Fungal airspora of Bikaner. Indian J. Aerobiol. 16 (1&2): pp. 1-9.

Aylor D.E.: 2002, Aerobiology of fungi in relation to capture and release by plants, in S.E. Lindow, E.I. Hecht-Poinar and V.J. Elliott (eds), Phyllosphere Microbiology. APS Press: St. Paul, pp. 341–36.

Barnett H.L. and Hunter B.B.: 1998. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi, 4th ed. APS Press St. Paul, MN.

Belanger R.R. and Avis T.J.: 2002. Ecological processes and interactions occurring in leaf surface fungi, in S.E. Lindow, E.I Hecht-Poinar and V.J. Elliott (eds), Phyllosphere Microbiology. APS Press: St. Paul, pp. 193–207.

Breeze E.M. and Dix N.J.: 1981. Seasonal analysis of the fungal community on Acer platanoides leaves, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 77: pp 321–328.

Corden, J. M. and Millington, W. M.: 2001.  The long-term trends and seasonal variation of the aeroallergens Alternaria in Derby, U. K. Aerobiologia. 17:  127-136.

Cunningham, D.D. (1873). Microscopic examination of air. Govt. Printers, Calcutta: pp. 58.

De Jager E.S., Wehner F.C. and Korsten L.: 2001. Microbial ecology of the mango phylloplane, Microb. Ecol. 42: pp 201– 207.

Ellis M.B.: 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, CAB International: Oxon, UK.

Ellis M.B.: 1976. More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, CAB International: Oxon, UK.

Gupta, K. D.; Soagani, I. C. and Kasliwal, R.M.; 1960. Survey of allergenic aerial mold spores at Jaipur. Indian J. Chest Dis. 2: 237-241.

Hirst, J.M.: 1953. Trans. Brit Myc. Soc., 36 (4): pp. 375.

Ina´cio J., Pereira P., de Carvalho M., Fonseca A. Amaral Collaco, M.T. and Spenser-Martins, I.: 2002. Estimation and diversity of phylloplane mycobiota on selected plants in a Mediterranean-type ecosystem in Portugal, Microb. Ecol. 44: pp 344–353.

Jadhav, S.K. and Tiwari, K.L.:1994. Aeromycoflora of Ravan village. Indian Bot. Reptr. B (13): pp. 33-36.

Kinkel L.L.: 1997. Microbial population dynamics on leaves, Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 35 : pp 327–347.

Kurkela, T.: 1997.  The number of Cladosporium conidia in the air in different weather conditions. Grana. 36: 54-61.

Lall, B M: 2008. Studies of outdoor and indoor aeromycoflora of Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar hospital, Raipur. Ph. D. Thesis, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University Raipur (C.G.).

Levetin E.: 2002. Bioaerosols in agricultural and outdoor settings, in G.

Manoharachary, C., Tulsi Reddi, V. R. and Vijaygopal, K. 1988.   Aermycological studies from some localities of Andhra Pradesh, India. Biome. 3: pp. 25-30.

McCormack P.J., Wildman H.G. and Jeffries P.: 1994. Production of antibacterial compounds by phylloplane inhabiting yeasts and yeast like fungi, Appl. Envir. Micro. 60: pp 927–931.

Mishra R.R. and Dickinson C.H.: 1981. Phylloplane and litter fungi of Ilex aquifolium, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 77: pp 329–337.

Nagrajan, S., Singh, H., Joshi, I.M. and Saari, E.E.: 1976. Meteorological conditions associated with long distance dissemination and deposition of Puccinia graminis tritici in India. Phytopath., 66: pp. 198-203.

Nayak, B.K., Nanda, A., and Behera, N.:1998.   Airborne fungal spores in an industrial area: seasonal and diurnal periodicity. Aerobiologia, 14: pp. 59-67.

Newsham K.K., Low M.N.R., McLeod A.R., Green slade P.D. and Emmett B.A.: 1997. Ultraviolet-B radiation influences the abundance and distribution of phylloplane fungi on pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), New Phytol. 136: pp 287– 297.

Osono T., Bhatta B.K. and Takeda H.: 2004. Phyllosphere fungi on living and decomposing leaves of giant dogwood, Mycoscience 45: pp 35–41.

Pedgley D.E.: 1991.  Aerobiology: the atmosphere as a source and sink for microbes, in J.H.

Rajan, B.S.V., Nigam, S.S. and Shukla, P.K.: 1952.  A study of atmospheric fungal flora at Kanpur. Pro. Ind. Aead. Sci. 35 (B): pp. 33-37.

Sahu, K.: (1998). Aeromycological studies over wheat crop field at Raipur. Ph.D. Thesis, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur (M.P.).

Sahu, S. K.; 1992.  Studies on the leaf surface aeromycoflora of Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. In relation to age and environmental factors. Biome. 5: pp. 95-100.

Sahu, S.K.: (1996). Studies on mycoflora associated with Spinach. . Ph.D. Thesis. Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur (M.P.).

Saluja, P. K.: 2005. Studies of aeromycoflora in relation to leaf surface mycoflora of Catharanthus roseus Linn. Ph. D. Thesis, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University Raipur (C.G.).

Satheesh, R. P. and Rao, G. R.: 1994. Fungal spore concentrations in the air at Tiruchirapalli (India) 1987-1988. Aerobiologia, 10: pp. 71-75.

Sharma, K.: 2001. Studies of aeromycoflora in relation to leaf- surface mycoflora of Ocimum sanctum L. Ph. D. Thesis, Pt. Ravishanker University, Raipur (C.G.).

Singh, A., Singh, A. B. and Gangal, S. V.: 1994. Airborne fungi in the Hospitals of Metropolitan, Delhi. Aerobiologia.  10: 11-21.

Singh, N. B.: 2006. Studies of aeromycoflora in relation to leaf surface mycoflora of Mentha arvensis Linn. Ph. D. Thesis, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur.

Sreeramulu, T. and Ramalingam, A.:1966. A two year study of the air spora of a paddy field near Vishakhapatnam. - Indian J. Agric. Sci. 36: pp. 111-132.

Sundin G.W.: 2002. Ultraviolet radiation on leaves: its influence on microbial communities and their adaptations, in S.E.

 Tilak ST,: Pillai SG, Saibaba M; 1981. Components of airspora inside the library and its relevance to book deterioration. Proc. Nat. Conf. Env. Biol,.  173-177.

Tilak, S. T. and Srinivasulu, B. V.: 1967. Airspora of Aurangabad. Ind. J. Microbiol. 7: pp. 167-170.

Tilak, S.T.: 1982. Aerobiology. Vaijayanti Prakashan, Aurangabad. pp. 126.

Tiwari, K. L. and Sahu, S. K.: 1988. Studies on the leaf surface and air mycoflora of Momordica charantia Linn. Plant Geobios new report. 7: pp. 135-139.

Tiwari, K. L. and Sahu, S. K.: 1989. Aerobiology of Datura alba L. in relation to leaf surface microflora. Biosphere. 13 (2): pp. 20-27.

Tiwari, K. L. and Sahu, S. K.: 1991. Airspora of Raipur with reference to fungal flora. (Abst.) 6th Nat. Aerobiol. Conf. Pondichery. pp. 169-170.

Tiwari, K. L.; 1977. Studies on the leaf surface mycoflora of some Solanaceous crop plants. Ph.D. Thesis, Jabalpur University, Jabalpur (M.P.).

Tiwari, K.L. and Sahu, S.K.: 1995.  Aeromycological studies of Raipur. Ad. Plant Sci. (2): pp. 391-396.

Verma, K. S. and Khare, K.: 1987. Study of airspora around Jabalpur University campus. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 11 (1): pp. 35-41.

Zak J.C.: 2002. Implications of a leaf surface habitat for fungal community structure and function, in S.E. Lindow, E.I. Hecht-Poinar and V.J. Elliott (eds), Phyllosphere Microbiology. APS Press: St. Paul, pp. 299–31.

Zoppas, De-Antoni, Valancia-Barrera, B. C., Vergamini, R. M., Duso, S. M. and Fernandez, G.:2006. Fungal spores prevalent in the aerosol of the city of Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, over a 2-year periods (2001-2002). Aerobiologia. 22 (2): pp. 117-124.



Related Images:

Recomonded Articles: