Introduction

Curiosity of human being has made possible the development from fire to animal clone. The inventions in different field including astronomical, medical, agriculture, corporate, engineering etc. are serving human living too easy in present days. These applications in different field requires natural resources such as sun light, soil, air, water, minerals, plants etc. Among these fundamental things, mineral resources were play key role in development of human being. A high demand of minerals and metals was seen during industrial development in eighteenth and nineteenth century. The minerals included iron, coal, aluminum, bauxite, clay, copper, silica which were directly involved in the development of human culture and society. Lead is another important metal serving the man which is used as petroleum additive, in battery, paints, dyes and in many other industries. Distribution of household water by plumbing was miracle discovery of lead. Because of different applications, uses of lead were in peak for few decades resulting in its accumulation in the atmosphere as well as surface and ground water. This accumulation was found more near the lead working sites such as industrial, urban, mining area and coastal region of sea. Now a day’s lead is very well known heavy metal pollutant and has become a serious threat to the environment as well as for living organisms.

Biochemistry and Sources of Lead

Lead is a blue or silver grey soft metal. Its atomic number is 82, relative atomic mass 207.19 and specific gravity is 11.38. The melting point of lead is 327^oC and boiling point at atmospheric pressure is 1740^oC. Lead has four isotopes including 208, 206, 207 and 204 which naturally occur in earth. Lead is found in the earth crust so it found naturally throughout the world. The natural origin of lead in earth incorporates volcanic eruptions, geochemical weathering and release from sea send out etc. Radioisotopic lead (²⁰⁷Pb) also derived from the decay of radon gas released from geological sources. The other natural sources of lead include rocks and soil, sediments etc. (WHO 1995). In the anthropogenic sources, lead mining is one of the important sources of primary lead. Lead is found associated with various minerals, the most important of which are galena (PbS), cerrusite (PbCO₃) and anglesite (PbSO₄). Mixed zinc and lead ores provides for about 70% of total primary lead supply of the world. Silver and copper were other important metals found with lead deposit. The major countries producing lead from mining activity are USA, Canada, Australia, Peru, former USSR and Mexico. Other countries producing lead from ores included China, former Yugoslavia, Morocco, Spain, Sweden and Tunisia (World Bureau of Metal Statistics 1992). Smelting and refining included production of refined lead also account as responsible factor of lead pollution (WHO 1995).

During the 18^th and 19^th centuries Lead pollution was expanded from quick industrialization worldwide (Patterson 1983). Globally, lead contribution to environment including combustion of alkyl lead in petrol, this was confirmed by the changes in environmental lead concentration with significant reduction in worldwide use of alkyl lead as a gasoline additive since the mid 1980s (Nriagu 1979).  Combustion of coal in power enterprises, burning of oil, mining, lead creation, steel and iron producing, civil and sewage ooze, phosphate composts, wood burning and battery work were the major reasons behind assessed universal anthropogenic outflow of lead in the environment (Nriagu and Pacyna 1988). Solid waste of municipal, sewage sludge, industrial waste water discharge also contains high level of lead. Analysis of fly and bottom ash from municipal incinerators showed high concentration of lead (Wadge and Hutton 1987).  Use of lead in paints can be source of lead contamination in surface dust soil near house or building as well as household dust (Rundle and Duggan 1986). The application of lead containing fertilizers to agricultural field can lead to contamination of soil, surface water and ground water. Cultivated crops in field uptakes the lead from contaminated lead water may provide the rout to come in food chain of animals. Coal contain small amount of lead, which can be concentrated in fly ash from coal combustion (Wadge and Hutton 1987).

Industrial sources of lead and associate metal ions

Industries are the real wellspring of lead and other metal contaminations since they uses enormous measure of crude minerals, for example, minerals of iron, aluminum, bauxite, mud and so on. Particulate matter, aerosol, squander water, solid waste and sludge are the different kind of pollutant discharged from industries to the earth. Close by plant and animal receives the discharged effluents originated from industries through natural pecking process. Contamination of lead and additional heavy metals from enterprises is in general issue now daily. Due to industrial emissions different sites of Australia including Port Jackson estuary, Port Phillip Bay and western Port Bay were found polluted with lead, copper, cadmium and zinc (Phillips 1976; Birch and Taylor 1999). Toxic heavy metals released from industries were also seen in different countries of Europe. Lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, arsenic and mercury pollution has been seen due to coal combustion, industrial effluents and industrial product in Britain and Wales (Kelly et al. 1996; Hutton and Symon 1986; Nicholson et al. 2003). Heavy metals including lead were seen polluted to Tarragona city by petrochemical industry and estuaries of Ria, Huelva has also found contaminated with lead due to industries and mining operation in Spain (Nadal et al. 2004; Perez-Lopez et al. 2011). Different industries have been investigated for heavy metal pollution in South African countries including Jordan and Nigeria. Lead, copper, chromium, zinc, iron and manganese were studied from Karak industrial area and lead with other metal ions was also analyzed in Challawa River, Nigeria due to industrial applications (Al-Khashman 2004; Azumi and Bichi 2010). Lead and other heavy metal pollution investigated due to vegetable oil industries in Nigeria (Ibrahim et al. 2012). In Asian countries, atmosphere of Taiwan and Hon Kong were found polluted with lead and other heavy metal ions due to industries and automobile (Li et al. 2001; Hsu et al.  2006). Industrial dust and sediment sample were found as a source of lead pollution in Taejan area of Korea (Kim et al. 1998). In Turkey, sites of Denizli city and Izmit Bay, Marmora Sea seen polluted with lead and other metal ions due to industrial applications, traffic, paint and coal combustion (Celik et al. 2005; Pekel 2006). Pollution of lead, iron, cobalt, cadmium and chromium in Ratnagiri, Maharastra, India studied due to pharmaceutical industry and in Bhandara, India lead pollution was investigated due to iron and steel industries (Sankpal and Nailwade 2012; Ladwani et al. 2012).  In the other part lead pollution was seen in Trinidad due to battery recycling and lead smelting industries (Mohammed et al. 1996).

Worldwide Lead Pollution

Now a day’s lead pollution is a worldwide burning problem, so that some scientific community focusing to find out the lead concentration in surface water, atmospheric particulate matter, sediment of different water reservoirs, soil, roadside dust, mining area etc. The environmental researchers are also focusing to find out the responsible causes of lead pollution. Lead pollution from anthropogenic activity is related to human development from agriculture, making of coins and other metal based product, but significant increase in lead pollution was seen after industrial revolution in early and middle nineteen (Weiss 1999; Hernbeg 2000). Leaded petroleum, gasoline and industrial development were major responsible causes during nineteenth century for increasing lead pollution in environment. But present days after the unleaded petroleum and gasoline, combustion of coal in industries are major causes of environment lead pollution (Weiss 1999).  In African countries environmental lead pollution was obtained due to lead mining sites in Algeria, Namibia, Tunisia and Zamibia (Chukwuma 1997). Soil and water samples of different states of Nigeria including Ebonyi, Ibadan and Benue were found polluted with lead metal ions (Oje et al. 2010; Abiolaet al. 2010; Ocheri et al. 2012). Atmospheric lead pollution was also found in Durban and Natal Provinces of South Africa (Nriagu et al. 1996). In Asia, researchers of China have found lead pollution in atmospheric particulate matter over Shanghai city; the causes of lead pollution in Shanghai were found coal combustion, iron and steel plants and automobile exhaust (Tan et al. 2006). Coal combustion and industrial emission also found as responsible atmospheric lead pollution in Guangzhou, China (Nurdan and Aydin 2007). Lead pollution also found in rural, urban and industrial sites in Korea (Nam et al. 2004). Sediment lead pollution from Lake and freshwater of European countries such as Sweden, Switzerland and Scotland were also recorded (Brannvall et al. 1997; Moor et al. 1996; Farmer et al. 1997). Brisbane, Australia; Ontario, Canada was the rest part of world where water and soil found polluted with lead metal ion (Simpson and Xu 1994; Darling and Thomson 2003). 

Lead pollution in India

Because of fast urbanization and industrialization abnormal state of heavy metal has been seen over various piece of nation. In northern part of country capital city New Delhi found highly polluted with various metal ions including lead, nickel, copper and chromium in dust sample of traffic and rural sites (Banerjee 2003). The heavy metals were also found in respiratory suspended particle in atmosphere of New Delhi (Khillare et al. 2004). The atmosphere of Lucknow and Varanasi were found polluted with lead metal ions, the automobile emissions found major causing factor in Varanasi (Singh et al. 1997; Tripathi 1994). In Lucknow milk sample was also found polluted with lead metal ions. In other part of northern India, Agra city and Hindon River site of Santagarh and Atali, Uttar Pradesh also contaminated with lead (Srivastava et al. 1992; Jain et al. 2005). In central part of India, lead, chromium, nickel and zinc were found higher than the limit in municipal sewage contaminated Lake of Bhopal (Shrivastava et al. 2003). In western part of India, Mumbai found polluted with various metal ions including lead (Sahu and Bhosale 1991). Soil of Pali industrial area of Rajasthan was found polluted with lead and other metal ions (Krishna and Govil 2004). The southern part of country Mangrove and coastal part of Tamil Nadu were found polluted with higher concentration of lead (Agoramoorthy et al. 2008). Habour water of Vishakhapattanam was found contaminated with lead, zinc, copper and cadmium whereas respiratory particulate in Madurai was also found to contain lead metal ions (Sultana and Rao 1998; Bhaskar et al. 2008). The central India is more affected with lead pollution as compare with other region of the country. Especially Raipur and its surrounding is facing huge concentration lead in atmosphere. Raipur located at latitude 21°24' N and longitude 81°63' E is a very important city of central India known for the production and marketing of metal products. Bhilai steel plant and industrial zone of Raipur including Urla, Siltara, Birgaon, Bhanpuri and Godwara are the two major zone covers the Raipur. Thus the city gets pollution from the two destinations as per wind heading and water flow. Among the different industrial destinations Raipur is important iron based market of India. The iron and coal burning based enterprises are so common which includes power, ferro composite, steel, cement, rice plant and aluminum businesses etc. The accessibility of iron minerals, coal, bauxite, dirt is the primary purpose behind foundation of these enterprises. The registered industrial units in Raipur district are 6442 among these 140 are medium and large units. The mineral based 395 micro and small enterprises are working in Raipur district while metal based industries are 874. Apart from these numbers chemical based industries are 192. Steel structure and cement is most exportable items of Raipur (MSME 2012). The lead was found higher than the permissible limit of National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) and also found higher than the other part of country. The discharged lead content in climate of Raipur is unequivocally connected with the commitment of industries of city (Sharma and Pervez 2003; Sharma and Pervez; 2004a; Patel et al. 2008). Lead content in the air of Raipur is additionally contributed by the combustion of coal (Patel et al. 2010; Thakur et al. 2004). Lead content of Raipur city has also found in road side soils due to heavy traffic load and it higher than the permissible limit (Kamavisdar et al. 2005; Sharma and Pervez 2003). Lead in blood has been seen high in residents living close-by highway it is because of high lead content in street side environment (Sharma and Pervez 2003). The dirt, silt, surface and overflow water of mechanical territory were additionally discovered sullied with Lead metal contamination (Patel et al. 2006; Patel et al. 2010).

The harmful particulate matter including Respiratory Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) and Non Respiratory Suspended Particulate Matter (NRSPM) has been also found high in Raipur (Rao et al. 2009; Dubey and Pervez 2008; Deshmukh et al. 2011). The particulate matter has also found releases from industries working in city (Rao et al. 2009). Apart from lead and particulate matter, Fluoride and Arsenic has also been found in the atmosphere of Raipur (Sharma and Pervez 2004a; Deb et al. 2002). Arsenic and Fluoride has also been found higher than the permissible limit in Chhattisgarh (Beg et al. 2011; Acharyy et al. 2005). The pollution of Arsenic and Fluoride were also found high in correlation with emission from industries of city (Sharma and Pervez 2004a; Deb et al. 2002). Dental and skeletal fluorosis has been seen due to pollution of fluoride by industrial activity and coal mining in Chhattisgarh (Beg et al. 2011; Sharma and Pervez 2004b).

Lead Toxicity to the Plants

Lead has many interesting Physico-chemical properties that make it very useful heavy metal. Industrialization, urbanization, mining and many other anthropogenic activities have resulted in the redistribution of lead from the earth’s crust to the environment. Plants are one of the most important targets of many pollutants, which enter to plant through soil system and atmosphere (Arshad et al. 2008). Excessive lead accumulation in plant tissue affects the morphological, physiological and biochemical functions of plants (Pourrut et al. 2011).

The trace amount of lead even effects the germination and growth of plants (Kopittke et al. 2007). Germination of seed, development and sporulation of seedling found strongly affected by lead metal ions (Tomulescu et al. 2004; Dey 2007; Mesmar and Jaber 1991). Decrease in biomass and shoot length also found due to lead pollution. Important crops such as wheat, rice, maize and soybean were also found affected with lead pollution (Shao et al. 2011; Mesmar and Jaber 1991; Sheng et al. 2005; Ghani 2010; Singh et al. 1997; Kopittke 2007; Huang 1974). Pb metal ion also affect the water status of plants, it decrease the transpiration and moisture content of plant (Barcelo and Poschenrieder 1990). Uptake of essential ions for plant growth including Zn, Mn, Mg, Ca and Fe are also decrease in high concentration of lead in plants (Gopal and Rizvi 2008). Photosynthesis reaction in plants is affected by lead pollution in various ways including destruction of ultrastructure of chloroplast (Elzbieta and Miroslawa 2005), inhibition of pigment synthesis (Cenkei et al. 2010), and obstruction of electron transport system (Qufei et al. 2009). Decreases in chlorophyll and photochemical efficiency were found in important food crop including wheat and maize due to excess concentration of lead nitrate (Mesmar and Jaber 1991; Ghani 2010). Lead inhibits nodulation and nitrogen fixation and ammonium and carbohydrate assimilation in root nodules (Huang 1974; Singh 1997a). Lead enter the nucleus and bind to DNA, it disrupt the DNA replication, DNA repair system and cause mutation (Valverde et al. 2001; Gichner et al. 2008).

Lead Toxicity to the Animals and Humans

High concentration of lead causes adverse effect on human health due to working and exposing with lead or lead based product. Lead affects fishes and other aquatic animals if dissolved in water ecosystem. Lead is a known carcinogen; its carcinogenicity includes direct DNA damage or inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. Lead may cause oxidative damage to DNA. It substitute zinc in several proteins and functions as transcriptional regulator, it also alters gene expression which affects cell function and causes cancer (Danadevi et al. 2003; Silbergeld et al. 2000, 2003). Chromosome aberration or sister chromatid exchange shown in lead exposed worker. Cancer mortality was found high in workers of lead smelters or battery workers who exposed decade ago (Steenland and Boffeta 2000). Lead causes damage to developing nerve system, behavioral change, intellectual impairment and irreversible learning in school aged children (Hsiang and Diaz 2011; Kim et al. 2009). Lead reduces antioxidant enzyme activity in brain and increase apoptosis and related genes (Prasanthi et al. 2010; Liu 2010). Lead affects the immune system also, it increases incidence of autoimmune disease, infectious disease and cancer. Lead affects the working of interferon (Mishra et al. 2003; Mishra 2009). Lead increases CD markers in cells, and affects activity of T- lymphocytes and erythrocytes (Yan et al. 2004; Markevieius and Dringeliene 2004). Toxicity of lead affects reproductive system including histology of testes, morphology of spermatozoa and reduction in fertility. Reduction in sperm count and sperm motility was also seen due to lead exposure (Sharma and Garu 2011; Wadi and Ahmad 1999). Abnormal menstruation, spontaneous abortion and impairment of the function of reproduction system were found in lead exposed female (Tang and Zhu 2003). High concentration of lead also affects blood circulation system. It affects the hemoglobin content and decreased red blood cell count. Lead causes abnormal neutrophils and production of immature WBCs (Sharma et al. 2012; Barber et al. 2011). Membrane proteins of red blood cell also found affected by high lead level (Apostoli et al. 1988). Apart from these lead also affects function of vitamin D and causes mineralization of bone (Gangoso et al. 2009; Smith et al. 1981). Lead also affects aquatic animals including fish and invertebrate living in freshwater and other habitat (Jastrzebska 2010; Grosell 2006; Olifa et al. 2003).

Measurement of Lead in Environmental Samples

Analysis of lead can be done by various analytical tools. Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma –atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) Graphite furnace absorption spectrometry (GFAAS), and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRFS) are most common equipment used to determine lead in environmental samples including air, dust, water, sediment and food. Earlier diphenylthiocarbazone based spectrophotometric method was also used to detect lead because of its simple and less sensitive process (WHO 1995). Spectroquant developed by Merk (Germany) is another important analytical tool for water quality analysis including heavy metals. The spectroquant being used worldwide for research studies including detection of chemical oxygen demand (Tay et al. 2010; Momba et al. 2006), total organic carbon (Tay et al. 2010), phosphate, nitrate, chloride (Momba et al. 2006; Azrina et al. 2011; Rabadjieva et al. 2009; Tepavitcharova et al. 2010). Apart from these fluoride was analyzed using Spectroquant Nova60 (Sekman et al. 2011). Heavy metal ion chromium, copper, nickel, iron and lead has been also detected in aqueous solution using Spectroquant Nova60 (Aydin et al. 2010; Herve et al. 2010; Gayathri and Kumar 2010; Gochev et al. 2010; Thomas et al. 2011).

Control Measure of Lead Pollution and Toxicity

The anthropogenic emission is rapidly contributing to environmental lead pollution. The level of lead in human blood seems to be rising due to uptake of lead coming from food chain. The minimization of emission and use of lead and lead based products is direct step towards the reduction of lead exposure and health problem. The reduction of lead exposure can be done by minimization of level of lead in motor fuels, lead based paints and batteries, elimination of use of lead in food cans, insecticides, pesticides and cosmetics. The emission from industries either gas or waste water should be filtered so that environmental lead pollution will be minimize. The plumbing in water distribution should need to control. Workers of paint and battery and industries need to take precaution before working. Information accumulation of lead in various ecological source including soil, water, air, plants, sustenance ought to be improved and the information gathered ought to be made accessible for open data with the goal that individuals ought to get mindful and comprehend the lead danger and hazard related to land and aquatic flora and fauna (WHO 1995).

Apart from these, removal of lead from environment is an important approach towards control of lead pollution. Chemical and biological methods are utilizing to remove lead and other metal ions from aqueous solution. Chemical method includes reverse osmosis, which utilizes semi permeable membrane which separates the metal ions. Reverse osmosis is an expensive method for removal of metal ions. Electro-dialysis is a technique utilizes semi-permeable ion selective membrane and electrodes; it separates metals by moving towards positive and negative electrodes. Salts are used in this technique for metal hydroxide and disrupt the membrane. Ion exchange is another chemical method which partially removes the metal ions and is costly method. Ultra filtration uses porous membrane and chemical precipitation method which utilizes alum, lime, ion salts to separate the metal ions. But both the methods generate large amount of sludge (Ahalya et al. 2003). So, many chemical methods are utilizes to clean up heavy metal ions including lead from water samples. Biological methods for removal of metal ions are recent and advance technology having advantages over chemical methods. These methods include bioaccumulation and biosorption. Biosorption based on waste and dried biomass is having advantages over all known techniques because it is eco-friendly, regenerable, maximum metal absorption etc. AlgaSORB^TM and AMT-Bioclim^TM are process based on biosorption absorbing heavy metals from aqueous solution (Kratochvil and Voleasky 1998).

Conclusion

Especially the industries are major source of lead pollution worldwide not only contributing in air but also to the water and soil. Natural flowing rivers are adversely affected by lead pollution in some region. Lead affects the plant in all aspects from germination, growth to the production of grain on the other hand disease and disability is found in animal. Different kinds of spectroscopy based methods are most reliable for analysis of lead in samples. Awareness among citizens is primary approach towards minimization of risk of lead exposure. Minimizing the use of lead based fuel, pesticides etc. will helps to lesser contribution of lead to the environment. Biological based eco-friendly biosorption technique is most effective method to remove lead from aqueous solution.

Acknowledgement

The author is thankful to UGC, New Delhi for providing Fellowship under XI Plan.

Conflict of interest

Authors had no conflict of interest.

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